Problem difficulty for tabu search in job-shop scheduling

Tabu search algorithms are among the most effective approaches for solving the job-shop scheduling problem (JSP). Yet, we have little understanding of why these algorithms work so well, and under what conditions. We develop a model of problem difficulty for tabu search in the JSP, borrowing from similar models developed for SAT and other NP-complete problems. We show that the mean distance between random local optima and the nearest optimal solution is highly correlated with the cost of locating optimal solutions to typical, random JSPs. Additionally, this model accounts for the cost of locating sub-optimal solutions, and provides an explanation for differences in the relative difficulty of square versus rectangular JSPs. We also identify two important limitations of our model. First, model accuracy is inversely correlated with problem difficulty, and is exceptionally poor for rare, very high-cost problem instances. Second, the model is significantly less accurate for structured, non-random JSPs. Our results are also likely to be useful in future research on difficulty models of local search in SAT, as local search cost in both SAT and the JSP is largely dictated by the same search space features. Similarly, our research represents the first attempt to quantitatively model the cost of tabu search for any NP-complete problem, and may possibly be leveraged in an effort to understand tabu search in problems other than job-shop scheduling.  2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. ✩ This is an extended version of the paper presented at the 6th European Conference on Planning, Toledo, Spain, 2001. * Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (J.-P. Watson). 1 The authors from Colorado State University were sponsored by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, Air Force Materiel Command, USAF, under grant number F49620-00-1-0144. The US Government is authorized to reproduce and distribute reprints for Governmental purposes notwithstanding any copyright notation thereon. 2 This work was performed while the second author was employed at ILOG, SA. 0004-3702/02/$ – see front matter  2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S0004-3702(02) 00 36 36 190 J.-P. Watson et al. / Artificial Intelligence 143 (2003) 189–217