مبادرت رانندگان به تکلیف ثانویه خطر‌ساز در راه‌های درون‌شهری مشهد

Alonso, F., Esteban, C., Useche, S.A. and Faus, M., 2017. Smoking while driving: Frequency, motives, perceived risk and punishment. World journal of preventive medicine, 5(1), pp.1-9. Alosco, M. L., Spitznagel, M. B., Fischer, K. H., Miller, L.A., Pillai, V., Hughes, J. and Gunstad, J., 2012. Both texting and eating are associated with impaired simulated driving performance. Traffic injury prevention, 13, pp. 468-75. Altman, D.G., 1990. Practical statistics for medical research. CRC press. Arvin, R., Khademi, M. and Razi-Ardakani, H., 2017. Study on mobile phone use while driving in a sample of Iranian drivers. International journal of injury control and safety promotion, 24, pp. 256-62. Asbridge, M., Brubacher, J. R. and Chan, H., 2012. Cell phone use and traffic crash risk: a culpability analysis, International journal of epidemiology, 42, pp. 259-256. Asgharabad, A.A., Tahami, A.N. and Khanjani, N., 2013. The rate of hand-held mobile phone use while driving in Kerman, Iran, Al Ameen Journal of Medical Sciences (P), 6, pp. 106-111. Atchley, P., Tran, A.V. and Salehinejad, M.A., 2017. Constructing a publically available distracted driving database and research tool. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 99, pp. 306-11. Bakiri, S., Galéra, C., Lagarde, E., Laborey, M., Contrand, B., Ribéreau-Gayon, R., Salmi, L.R., Gabaude, C., Fort, A., Maury, B. and Lemercier, C., 2013. Distraction and driving: Results from a case–control responsibility study of traffic crash injured drivers interviewed at the emergency room. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 59, pp. 588-592. Blincoe, L.J., Miller, T.R., Zaloshnja, E. and Lawrence, B.A., 2015. The Economic and Societal Impact of Motor Vehicle Crashes, 2010.(Revised)(Report No. DOT HS 812 013). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, D.C. Brodsky, W. and Slor, Z., 2013. Background music as a risk factor for distraction among young-novice drivers. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 59, pp. 382-93. Caird, J.K., Johnston, K.A., Willness, C.R., Asbridge, M. and Steel, P., 2014. A meta-analysis of the effects of texting on driving. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 71, pp. 311-18. Caird, J.K., Simmons, S.M., Wiley, K., Johnston, K.A. and Horrey, W.J., 2018. Does talking on a cell phone, with a passenger, or dialing affect driving performance? An updated systematic review and meta-analysis of experimental studies. Human factors, 60, pp. 101-133. Charlton, S.G., 2009. Driving while conversing: Cell phones that distract and passengers who react. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 41, pp. 160-73. Choudhary, P. and Velaga, N.R., 2017. Modelling driver distraction effects due to mobile phone use on reaction time. Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies, 77, pp. 351-365. Cooper, J.F., Ragland, D.R., Ewald, K., Wasserman, L. and Murphy, C.J., 2012. Observational survey of cell phone use and texting by California drivers, 2011. Transportation research record, 2321, pp. 7-14.  Dibben, N. and Williamson, V.J., 2007. An exploratory survey of in-vehicle music listening, Psychology of Music, 35(4), pp. 571-89. Drews, F.A., Yazdani, H., Godfrey, C.N., Cooper, J.M. and Strayer, D.L., 2009. Text messaging during simulated driving. Human factors, 51, pp. 762-770. Fitch, G.M., Bartholomew, P.R., Hanowski, R.J. and Perez, M.A., 2015. Drivers' visual behavior when using handheld and hands-free cell phones. Journal of safety research, 54, e129-108. Horrey, W.J. and Wickens, C.D., 2006. Examining the impact of cell phone conversations on driving using meta-analytic techniques. Human factors, 48(1), pp. 196-205. Huisingh, C., Griffin, R. and McGwin Jr, G., 2015. The prevalence of distraction among passenger vehicle drivers: a roadside observational approach. Traffic injury prevention, 16, pp. 140-146. ILMO., 2018. Comparison of road traffic casualties and injuries in Iran: 1395 and 1396. Iranian Legal Medicine Organization, Tehran, Iran. [In Persian] Irwin, C., Monement, S. and Desbrow, B., 2015. The influence of drinking, texting, and eating on simulated driving performance. Traffic injury prevention, 16, pp. 116-123. Kalantari, A.H., 2018. Investigating the prevalence of drivers’ secondary tasks and identifying factors influencing distracted driving on Mashhad urban roads. Master's thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, Eqbal Lahoori Institute of Higher Education, Mashhad, Iran. [In Persian] Klauer, S.G., Guo, F., Simons-Morton, B.G., Ouimet, M.C., Lee, S.E. and Dingus, T.A., 2014. Distracted driving and risk of road crashes among novice and experienced drivers. New England journal of medicine, 370, pp. 54-59. Lee, J.D., 2017. Driver Distraction and Inattention: Advances in Research and Countermeasures, CRC Press. McEvoy, S.P., Stevenson, M.R., McCartt, A.T., Woodward, M., Haworth, C., Palamara, P. and Cercarelli, R., 2005. Role of mobile phones in motor vehicle crashes resulting in hospital attendance: a case-crossover study. British Medical Journal, 331, pp. 428-432. McEvoy, S.P., Stevenson, M.R. and Woodward, M., 2007. The prevalence of, and factors associated with, serious crashes involving a distracting activity. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 39, pp. 475-482. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)., 2014. Distracted Driving 2012. DOT HS 812 012, Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)., 2017. Distracted Driving 2015, Traffic Safety Facts Research Note. Report No. DOT HS 812 381. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Owens, J.M., McLaughlin, S.B. and Sudweeks, J., 2011. Driver performance while text messaging using handheld and in-vehicle systems. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 43, pp. 939-947. Patten, C.J., Kircher, A., Östlund, J. and Nilsson, L., 2004. Using mobile telephones: cognitive workload and attention resource allocation. Accident analysis and prevention, 36, pp. 341-350.  Pearson, K., 1900. X. On the criterion that a given system of deviations from the probable in the case of a correlated system of variables is such that it can be reasonably supposed to have arisen from random sampling”, The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, 50, pp. 157-175. Prat, F., Planes, M., Gras, M.E. and Sullman, M.J.M., 2015. An observational study of driving distractions on urban roads in Spain. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 74, pp. 8-16. Regan, M.A., Hallett, C. and Gordon, C.P., 2011. Driver distraction and driver inattention: Definition, relationship and taxonomy. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 43(5), pp. 1771-1781.  Reynolds, S., Baden, P., Dhani, A., Bhagat, A., Tranter, M., Mais, D. and Wolch, E., 2017. Reported road casualties Great Britain, annual report: 2016. Department for Transport, London. Rudisill, T.M. and Zhu, M., 2017. Hand-held cell phone use while driving legislation and observed driver behavior among population sub-groups in the United States. BMC public health, 17, pp. 437-437. Rumschlag, G., Palumbo, T., Martin, A., Head, D., George, R. and Commissaris, R.L., 2015. The effects of texting on driving performance in a driving simulator: The influence of driver age. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 74, pp. 145-149. Sabzevari, J.T., Nabipour, A.R., Khanjani, N., Tajkooh, A.M. and Sullman, M.J., 2016. An observational study of secondary task engagement while driving on urban streets in Iranian Safe Communities. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 96, pp. 56-63. Sanbonmatsu, D.M., Strayer, D.L., Biondi, F., Behrends, A.A. and Moore, S.M., 2016a. Cell-phone use diminishes self-awareness of impaired driving. Psychonomic bulletin and review, 23, pp. 617-623. Sanbonmatsu, D.M., Strayer, D.L., Behrends, A.A., Ward, N. and Watson, J.M., 2016b. Why drivers use cell phones and support legislation to restrict this practice. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 92, pp. 22-33. Simons-Morton, B.G., Guo, F., Klauer, S.G., Ehsani, J.P. and Pradhan, A.K., 2014. Keep your eyes on the road: Young driver crash risk increases according to duration of distraction. Journal of Adolescent Health, 54,  S61-S67. Sullman, M.J., 2012. An observational study of driver distraction in England. Transportation research part F: traffic psychology and behaviour, 15, pp. 272-278. Sullman, M.J., Prat, F. and Tasci, D.K., 2015. A roadside study of observable driver distractions. Traffic injury prevention, 16, pp. 552-557. Treffner, P.J. and Barrett, R., 2004. Hands-free mobile phone speech while driving degrades coordination and control. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 7(4-5), pp. 229-246. Vollrath, M., Huemer, A.K., Teller, C., Likhacheva, A. and Fricke, J., 2016. Do German drivers use their smartphones safely?—Not really!. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 96, pp. 29-38. Wilson, J., Fang, M., Wiggins, S. and Cooper, P., 2003. Collision and violation involvement of drivers who use cellular telephones. Traffic injury prevention, 4, pp. 45-52. Wundersitz, L.N., 2014. Phone use while driving: results from an observational survey. Traffic injury prevention, 15, pp. 537-541. Yannis, G., Laiou, A., Papantoniou, P. and Gkartzonikas, C., 2016. Simulation of texting impact on young drivers’ behavior and safety on motorways. Transportation research part F: traffic psychology and behaviour, 41, pp. 10-18. Young, K.L., Rudin-Brown, C.M. and Lenné, M.G., 2010. Look who's talking! A roadside survey of drivers’ cell phone use. Traffic injury prevention, 11, pp. 555-560. Yousefi, A., 2011. A thought on social boundaries in urban spaces of Mashhad city: Categorizing the occupational prestige of regions in Mashhad. Journal of  social science, 6, pp. 61-91. [In Persian]  Young, K. and Regan, M., 2007. Driver distraction: A review of the literature. Distracted driving. Sydney, NSW: Australasian College of Road Safety, pp. 379-405.                   Secondary Task Engagement While Driving on Mashhad Urban Roads     Kalantari, A.H., MSc. Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Eqbal Lahoori Institute of Higher Education, Mashhad, Iran- Corresponding Author: [email protected] Ayati, E., Ph.D. Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Eqbal Lahoori Institute of Higher Education, Mashhad, Iran Rasoulipour, H., MSc. Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Eqbal Lahoori Institute of Higher Education, Mashhad, Iran Received: Jul 20, 2018                     Accepted: Aug 19, 2018   ABSTRACT Background and Aim: Distracted driving, specifically cell phone use while driving, is found to be responsible for traffic accidents and road casualties throughout the world, annually. The aim of the current study was to determine the prevalence of drivers' engagement in hazardous secondary activities on Mashhad urban roads with cell phone use being its main objective. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional study after collecting the data from Mashhad Traffic and Transportation Orgazination, was conducted at 17 randomly selected sites in 3 months which were comprised of 42 arterial and collector roads. Data were analyzed by the Pearson's chi-squared test. Results: In total from 81,960 observed drivers, 5,674 (6.9%) were engaged at least in one secondary task (86.2% men). The prevalence of cell phone use was 5.27% and the most observed related task was handheld conversation (3.15%) followed by texting (1.83%) and hands-free use (0.28%). In addition, 1.75% of drivers were engaged in eating, drinking and smoking. Significant differences were found in driver's gender and age. Distracted female drivers and drivers aged 26-35 were significantly more likely to be observed engaging in cell phone use while drivers under 26 were the dominant group in texting. Conclusion: Having known about the severity of the case, more robust interventions should be integrated into jurisdictions and authorities, including education regarding the risks associated with engaging in secondary activities while driving, law enforcement, tougher legislation, regular assessment and raising public awareness.