Many different receptors, ion channels, are involved in the pathophysiology of pain, which can serve as targets for adjuvant drugs. Despite advent long-acting local anesthetics, improvement their pharmacokinetics, and advanced regional anesthesia techniques, they do not fully meet need treatment especially chronic pain. In parallel with increase anesthetic power risk systemic toxicity increases...

The review covers basic recent discoveries on the mechanism of action of adjuvants, which have been developed in the last decade. In particular, it focuses on the activation of TOLL like receptors and subsequent release of pro-inflammatory lymphokines (innate immunity), which, in turn, are thought to activate antigen specific responses (adaptive immunity). Given the number of novel adjuvants av...