BACKGROUND Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most commonly diagnosed psychiatric disorders in childhood. A wide variety of treatments have been used for the management of ADHD. We aimed to compare the efficacy and safety of pharmacological, psychological and complementary and alternative medicine interventions for the treatment of ADHD in children and adolescents. ...

BACKGROUND The past decade has seen a generalized upward trend in the prevalence of adolescent use of substances, including stimulants. The purpose of this article was to determine the prevalence of and risk factors for the medical and nonmedical use of stimulants, and the diversion of prescribed stimulants among adolescent students, and to demonstrate links between medical use, nonmedical use ...

BACKGROUND To produce population-level, year- and age-specific risk estimates of first time nonmedical use of prescription stimulants among young people in the United States. METHODS Data are from the National Surveys on Drug Use and Health 2004-2012; a nationally representative probability sample survey administered each year. Subpopulations included youths aged 12 to 21 years (n=240,160) wh...

The translation of nutrients into increased body mass is achieved in different ways by different organs and organisms. The dimensions to which the bodies of vertebrates grow can be classified as determinate or indeterminate. Determinate types include higher vertebrates in which a species specific stature is attained more or less at the time of sexual maturity. Many of the lower vertebrates have...

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT In the early 1930s, it was reported that injections of crude pituitary extracts increased growth rates in growing animals and milk production in lactating animals. Subsequent studies led to purification from pituitary extracts of two peptide hormones—prolactin and “growth hormone” or somatotropin—which are important to growth and lactation. Prolactin has many functions ra...

The underlying molecular mechanisms of drug abuse and addiction behaviors are poorly understood. Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) provide a simple, whole animal model with conserved molecular pathways well suited for studying the foundations of complex diseases. Historically, chemotaxis has been a measure used to examine sensory approach and avoidance behavior in worms. Chemotaxis can be mod...