BACKGROUND Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are pattern recognition receptors that recognize pathogen associated molecular patterns and trigger innate immunity leading to initiation of adaptive immunity. TLR-mediated activation of dendritic cells (DCs) is known to be a critical event in the initiation of cellular and humoral immune responses. Recent work however suggests that B cells also express TLR...

Background: Preeclampsia (PE) is one of the most complex and life-threatening pregnancy disorders and is considered as a major cause of mortality among mothers and fetuses worldwide. Although the exact etiology of PE is not well known several lines of evidence support an immunological etiology for PE. Objective: To investigate the differences in the expression of TLRs 2, 4, 5, and 6 and a group...

Background: In the past decade, childlessness has become a most important problem in the world. At the same time evidence confirms a link between sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and infertility problem. Some of viral STDs are: HIV, HPV, HSVand so on. The innate immune system is essential for the initial detection of invading viruses and subsequent activation of adaptive immunity. also, The...

Members of the Toll-like receptor (TLR) family are vital to immune function through the sensing of pathogenic agents and initiation of an appropriate immune response. More specifically, tissue and cell specific TLR expression patterns have been correlated with the ability to respond to various pathogenic challenges. Bovine sequence exists for 4 of the 10 human TLR Reference Sequences and no ovi...

The coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has already resulted in a huge setback to mankind terms of millions deaths, while the unavailability an appropriate therapeutic strategy made scenario much more severe. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are crucial mediators and regulators host immunity role human cell surface TLRs S...

Natural killer (NK) cells are specialized lymphocytes primarily involved in the response to infection and tumors. NK characterized by presence of specific surface molecules, as well a wide repertoire receptors that impart microenvironment‑dependent effector functions. Among these receptors, Toll‑like (TLRs) can be activated condition either cytotoxic or immunoregulatory phenotype. However, cell...

The discovery of mammalian TLRs (Toll-like receptors), first identified in 1997 based on their homology with Drosophila Toll, greatly altered our understanding of how the innate immune system recognizes and responds to diverse microbial pathogens. TLRs are evolutionarily conserved type I transmembrane proteins expressed in both immune and non-immune cells, and are typified by N-terminal leucine...