International organizations (IOs) often drive policy change in member countries. Given IOs' limited political leverage over a country, previous research argues that IOs rely on combination of hard pressures (i.e., conditionality) and soft socialization) to attain their goals. Expanding this literature, we hypothesize can enhance through loan conditions aimed at enhancing the independence key ad...

A high-frequency approach is used to analyze the effects of President Trump’s tweets that criticize Federal Reserve on financial markets. Identification exploits a short time window around precise timestamp for each tweet. The average effect expected fed funds rate negative and statistically significant, with magnitude growing by horizon. also lead an increase in stock prices decrease long-term...