This paper describes the chaotic monetary environment of medieval and early modern Europe. The poor quality of the coinage was a result both of problems with the supply of bullion and with deficiencies of monetary policy. The paper examines the supply and demand of bullion and the determinants of bullion flows. It then discusses the economics and politics of debasement. It concludes with a desc...

Abstract We have reviewed the published chemical analyses of bronze coinage produced in pre-Qin China (before 221 BCE), with aim understanding alloying practices which took place before these coins were cast. Conventionally it has been assumed that they made to a ‘target composition’, by separately adding lead and tin copper. However, characterizing composition different coin classes trend line...

X-ray scintillators are widely used in medical imaging, industrial flaw detection, security inspection, and space exploration. However, traditional commercial usually associated with a high use cost because of their substantial toxicity easy deliquescence. In this work, an atomically precise Au–Cu cluster scintillator (1) thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) property was facilely syn...

Coinage production of ancient powers such as Athens and Rome is usually inferred from die statistics monetary issues. The present work applies a Kaplan-Meier analysis resistance to failure 29 sets well-documented rate function assumes U-shaped form known in reliability engineering literature the ‘bathtub curve’. With geometric distribution being demonstrably violated for large fraction data set...

Abstract During the AD 68/9 Civil Wars, Galba, Otho, Vitellius and then Vespasian fought for — gained control of Roman Empire. Our textual sources suggest that this was a period serious sustained disruption. However, existing analyses gold coinages produced in show only minor reduction purity coinage. Using X-ray fluorescence, we identify number heavily debased coins issued during many slightly...