Understanding the developmental and genetic basis for evolutionarily significant morphological variation in complex phenotypes such as the mammalian skull is a challenge because of the sheer complexity of the factors involved. We hypothesize that even in this complex system, the expression of phenotypic variation is structured by the interaction of a few key developmental processes. To test thi...

It is well known that the skull provides elements for sex identification. Twenty-two bones form the cephalic cranium and they are divided into neurocranium and splancnocranium. This research aimed to study different characteristics between skulls from both sexes by evaluating the following measurements: mastoid notch to incisive foramen (right and left side); mastoid notch to mastoid notch; and...

The aim of this study is to investigate whether the variation in breadth of the cranial base among modern human populations that inhabit different regions of the world is linked with climatic adaptation. This work provides an examination of two hypotheses. The first hypothesis is that the correlation between basicranial breadth and ambient temperature is stronger than the correlation between te...

To better understand the evolution and development of the amniote cranium, it is necessary to examine non-avian, non-mammalian embryos. Herein, development of the chondrocranium in the loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta, is described based on whole-mount and sectioned specimens. Primitive characteristics were found to be established rather early in development; at these stages, the cranium rese...

The recent reconstruction of the Sahelanthropus tchadensis cranium (TM 266-01-60-1) provides an opportunity to examine in detail differences in cranial shape between this earliest-known hominid, African apes, and other hominid taxa. Here we compare the reconstruction of TM 266-01-60-1 with crania of African apes, humans, and several Pliocene hominids. The results not only confirm that TM 266-01...

We describe a new large predatory archosaur, Smok wawelski gen. et sp. nov., from the latest Triassic (latest Norian–early Rhaetian; approximately 205–200 Ma) of Lisowice (Lipie Śląskie clay−pit) in southern Poland. The length of the recon− structed skeleton is 5–6 m and that of the skull 50–60 cm, making S. wawelski larger than any other known predatory archosaur from the Late Triassic and Ear...