Heat-stable plant-made (edible) vaccines are inexpensive to produce, can be administered orally, and could be utilized to enhance vaccine coverage in children, particularly in developing countries. Plant-made vaccines can deliver undegraded antigens to the enteric mucosal immune system. A number of clinical trials have produced encouraging results. This review summarizes plant-derived vaccines,...

Aphids attack virtually all plant species and cause serious crop damages in agriculture. Despite their dramatic impact on food production, little is known about the molecular processes that allow aphids to exploit their host plants. To date, few aphid salivary proteins have been identified that are essential for aphid feeding, and their nature and function remain largely unknown. Here, we show ...

Deciphering plant-microbe interactions is a promising aspect to understand the benefits and the pathogenic effect of microbes and crop improvement. The advancement in sequencing technologies and various 'omics' tool has impressively accelerated the research in biological sciences in this area. The recent and ongoing developments provide a unique approach to describing these intricate interactio...

Importance of this therapeutic method in Iran is more prominent than other countries in the world for two main reasons; the first one is plant richness, biodiversity, having 11 climates of 13 world-known climates, and diversity of 8000 plant species that are considered as an exclusive capacity in Iran. The second is considering the possibility of inadequate access to medicine at the internation...

In plants, perception of pathogen-associated molecular patterns at the surface is the first line of defence in cellular immunity. This review summarizes recent evidence of the involvement of vesicle trafficking in the plant's immune response against pathogens. I first discuss aspects of ligand-stimulated receptor endocytosis. The best-characterized pattern-recognition receptor (PRR), FLS2, is a...

From pathogen perception and the activation of signal transduction cascades to the deployment of defense responses, protein ubiquitination plays a key role in the modulation of plant immunity. Ubiquitination is mediated by three enzymes, of which the E3 ubiquitin ligases, the substrate determinants, have been the major focus of attention. Accumulating evidence suggests that ubiquitination modul...