Earlier studies found a discrepancy between the display and feeling of surprise. Therefore, we assessed what factors influence the display of surprise in children of two age groups: 8and 11-year-olds. We manipulated the social setting (children either competed or collaborated), and the cause of surprise (a surprisingly positive or negative event). We found that children used more features to ex...

Elastic forces within DNA drive the segregation of chromosomes in bacteria.

Elections involving a very large voter population often lead to outcomes that surprise many. This is particularly important for the elections in which results affect the economy of a sizable population. A better prediction of the true outcome helps reduce the surprise and keeps the voters prepared. This paper starts from the basic observation that individuals in the underlying population build ...

Surprise drives learning. Various neural "prediction error" signals are believed to underpin surprise-based reinforcement learning. Here, we report a surprise signal that reflects reinforcement learning but is neither un/signed reward prediction error (RPE) nor un/signed state prediction error (SPE). To exclude these alternatives, we measured surprise responses in the absence of RPE and account...

Among the many forms of brain plasticity, changes in synaptic strength and changes in synapse number are particularly prominent. However, evidence for neurotransmitter respecification or switching has been accumulating steadily, both in the developing nervous system and in the adult brain, with observations of transmitter addition, loss, or replacement of one transmitter with another. Natural s...