We explored multiple linkages among grey wolves (Canis lupus), elk (Cervus elaphus), berry-producing shrubs and grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) in Yellowstone National Park. We hypothesized competition between elk and grizzly bears whereby, in the absence of wolves, increases in elk numbers would increase browsing on berry-producing shrubs and decrease fruit availability to grizzly bears. After wo...

Animal-plant interactions in Neotropical forests are complex processes. Within these processes, mid- to large-sized mammals consume fruits and seeds from several species; however, because of their size these mammals are overhunted, resulting in defaunated forests. Our objective was to evaluate and compare seed removal and survivorship in a forest with no hunting, a forest with moderate or reduc...

this study conducted to investigate the effects of grazing in a short-term stocking system on the water-soluble carbohydrates (wsc) and nitrogen (n) reserves of permanent parts of bromus tomentellus, cephalaria kotschyi and ferula haussknekhtii in saral rangelands. a key area was selected with a permanent exclosure area and two temporary exclosure areas. root excavation was conducted at six to ...

Global conversion of patches natural vegetation into agricultural land is reducing the ecosystem services provided by dwelling species to farmers. For sub-Saharan African subsistence farmers, such a reduction in pest control birds may be significant disadvantage. Here we explored what extent provide staple crop maize (Zea mays) on small farms Mambilla Plateau Taraba State, Nigeria. We used excl...