In ancient Mayan texts cocoa is considered a gift of the gods: Pre-Columbian populations used chocolate as medicine, too. After the discovery of America, chocolate was introduced in Europe, but Christian Europe looked to this new exhilarating drink with extreme suspiciousness and criticism. From this reaction, the necessity derived to appeal to the reasons of health, with which doctors and scie...

background: clinical trial is the standard method to assess efficacy of a medical intervention. because of its experimental nature, meaning that subjects are exposed to an intervention with uncertain outcome and according to historical evidences of criminal researches, clinical trial is of something of a lightning rod for ethical concerns. ethical issues surrounding clinical trials are very per...

background and purpose: in some patients, invasive radiology procedures by using anesthetics and contrast may lead to certain reaction. therefore, consent must be obtained from patients. at the moment, some radiology centers obtain the consent from the patient in some of invasive radiology procedures in iran. due to the importance of consent and its position in patients' ethics, and becaus...