The unification of a strong and authoritarian state with religious laws and institutions after the 1979 revolution in Iran has resulted in the creation of a dualistic state structure in which non-elected and non-accountable state authorities and institutions-the majority of whom have not accepted either the primacy of democracy nor the premise of equality between men and women (or Muslims and n...

TO THE EDITOR—Treatment of multidrugresistant (MDR) tuberculosis requires longtime usage of toxic drugs that are unpleasant for patients and costly for patients and governments. The costs in terms of human suffering, disability, and socioeconomic loss are immeasurable. In Iran, diagnosis and treatment of the disease are offered free of charge; fees are paid by the government and several chariti...

To the editor: As the world was preparing for a pandemic influenza of avian origin, in April 2009 a novel influenza A virus H1N1 strain of swine origin, now known as pandemic A(H1N1) 2009 virus (abbreviated as pH1N1), emerged in Mexico and spread quickly worldwide. On April 24, 2009, the World Health Organization announced a Public Health Emergency of International Concern caused by this new in...

Background Cystic Echinococcosis (CE) is a serious zoonotic parasitic disease in Iran. This study aimed to show the trend of the confirmed disease from 1995 to 2014 and to describe some of epidemiological aspects of the disease in Iran. Methods This retrospective study has been designed based on data collected from 8518 cases of CE among various geographical locations of Iran. Results The a...

Dear Editor, Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic demyelinating disease of the central nervous system and usually affects young women. It is the second most common cause of neurological disability in young adults after trauma. 1,2 Previously, Iran was considered a low prevalence area, but recent investigations have shown that the prevalence of MS in Iran has increased significantly. 3 This incr...

Implicit bias has recently gained much attention in scholarly attempts to understand and explain different forms of social injustice by identifying causally relevant mental states in individual’ minds. Here we question the explanatory power of implicit bias in a particular type of injustice, testimonial injustice, and more generally in what we call speech injustice. Testimonial injustice occurs...