Objectives.—To review current knowledge of the biology and clinical implications of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) resistance to antiretroviral drugs, describe assays for measuring resistance, and assess their use in clinical practice. Participants.—The International AIDS Society-USA assembled a panel of 13 physicians with expertise in basic science, clinical research, and patient care rele...

background and aims: celery mosaic virus (cemv) is one of the causal agents of viral diseases in celery (apium graveolens). cemv is a member of the potyvirus genus in potyviridae family. the virus is naturally transmitted by aphids in a non-persistent manner. during growing season 2006-2007 viral disease symptoms were observed in celery fields grown in tehran province (bage daneshkade, mohamads...

Historically, drug discovery has employed mainly “phenotypic” approaches—often characterized by physiological observations on whole animals or organ models (Kotz 2012). Most of the first-in-class medicines, those that use a unique mechanism of action to treat a medical condition, developed before the 1980s were discovered by phenotypic Executive Summary With the advent of increasingly high thro...

Information about a gene sometimes can be deduced by examining the impact of its mutation on phenotype. However, the genome-scale utility of the method is limited because, for nearly all model organisms, the majority of mutations result in little or no observable phenotypic impact. The cause of this is often attributed to robustness or redundancy within the genome, but that is only one plausibl...

At the 2011 Yale Chemical Biology Symposium, Jason Gestwicki presented a novel yet intuitive approach to drug screening. This method, which he termed "gray box" screening, targets protein complexes that have been reconstituted in vitro. Therefore, the gray box screen can achieve greater phenotypic complexity than biochemical assays but avoids the need for target identification that follows cell...

New rapid phenotypic assays for the detection of rifampin resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis have recently been described, but most of these require liquid cultures, which reduces the utility of many tests in terms of turnaround times. In the United Kingdom, over 90% of rifampin-resistant isolates are also resistant to isoniazid, so rifampin resistance can be used as a sensitive marker fo...

Scoring the activity of compounds in phenotypic high-throughput assays presents a unique challenge because of the limited resolution and inherent measurement error of these assays. Techniques that leverage the structural similarity of compounds within an assay can be used to improve the hit-recovery rate from screening data. A technique is presented that uses clustering and sampling statistics ...

Evolutionary history, parental experience and individual provide distinct avenues by which the environment alters phenotypes, yet mechanisms mediating phenotypic variation on these timescales may interact. Here we examine how juvenile jointly modify offspring phenotypes in Trinidadian guppy, Poecilia reticulata. Parents were reared laboratory either with or without predator cues, split cues. We...

Qari and colleagues (3) in 2002 reported a comparative analysis of two commercial phenotypic assays (Antivirogram and PhenoSense) for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) drug resistance testing. The Antivirogram (1) and PhenoSense (2) assays are both recombinant virus-based assays to measure the drug susceptibilities of patient-derived HIV protease or reverse transcriptase sequences and...