Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are powerful molecular regulators by which the immune system may "sense" the environment and protect the host from pathogens or endogenous threats. In mammalian cells, several TLRs were identified with a tissue and cell type-specific distribution. Understanding the functions of specific TLRs is crucial for the development and discovery of compounds useful to maintaini...

The cells of innate and adaptive immunity, although activated by different ligands, engage in cross talk to ensure a successful immune outcome. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are key components of the innate immune system and have the ability to detect microbial infection and trigger host defence responses. Otherwise, human T lymphocytes are able to produce most TLRs. Thus, we analyze the capabilit...

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are type I transmembrane proteins that are key regulators of both innate and adaptive immune responses. To protect the host from viral and bacterial threats, TLRs trigger a pro-inflammatory immune response by detecting pathogen and danger associated molecular patterns. Considerable evidence has accumulated to show that the dysregulation of TLR signaling contributes to...

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) belong to a family of innate immune receptors that detect and clear invading microbial pathogens. Specifically intracellular TLRs such as TLR3, TLR7, TLR8 and TLR9 recognize nucleic acids such as double-stranded RNA, single-stranded RNA and CpG DNA respectively derived from microbial components. Upon infection, nucleic acid sensing TLRs signal within endosomal compart...

Neurogenesis, the process of generating new neurons in the brain, fascinates researchers for its promise to affect multiple cognitive and functional processes in both health and disease. Many cellular pathways are involved in the regulation of neurogenesis, a complexity exemplified by the extensive regulation of this process during brain development. Toll-like receptors (TLRs), hallmarks of inn...

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are well known activators of immune responses, but their involvement in the plasma cell (PC) differentiation process remains mostly unknown. This review is focused on the expression and function of TLRs on normal PCs and their malignant counterpart, Multiple Myeloma cells. We report studies that suggest a role for TLR ligands as adjuvants of the humoral immune respons...

The skin, the largest organ in the body, provides the first line of defense against the environment both as a physical barrier and as a key immunological component. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) serve as signaling molecules that recognize pathogenassociated molecular patterns (PAMPs) as well as damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), and are expressed by various skin cells including keratino...

The innate immune sensors, Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptors (NLRs), can recognize not only exogenous pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), but also endogenous molecules created upon tissue injury, sterile inflammation, and degeneration. Endogenous ligands are called damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), and include e...

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a family of pattern recognition receptors that serve as a key part of the innate immune system. TLRs play a role in coordinating the organism's first line of defence against invading microbes or tissue injury. TLR-mediated inflammation is an important pathogenic link between innate immunity and a diverse panel of clinical disorders. Among these processes are cardi...

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have emerged as one of the most important families of innate immune receptors for initiating inflammation and also for promoting adaptive immune responses. Recent studies have examined the ability of TLRs to promote antibody responses, including T-cell-dependent antibody responses. Initial study suggested that TLR stimulation promotes primarily an extrafollicular anti...