the military domination of russia on transoxiana imported, for the first time, the title of russian turkestan in political geography in 19 century. what belongs to this territory includes the khanate of khoqand and some regions of bukhara, and khiva. the main difference between turkestan and two other khanates  was their relationship with russia. while turkestan was incorporated to russia the t...

Introduction Youth justice is still a fairly new aspect of the criminal justice system in England and Wales and the rest of the world. It was established on the premise that children and adults should be dealt with differently and separately in the criminal justice process, and since then a welfare model of youth justice has typically prevailed on an international level, with an emphasis upon t...

We propose substantive universals in the relationship between social evolution and language change. Social anthropologists have categorized societies into roughly four broad types by social organization: bands, tribes, chiefdoms and states. This classification is evolutionary in the sense that the society types arose in human history in the sequence given above. We compare these society types t...

We generalize standard delegation models to consider policymaking when both information and authority are dispersed among multiple actors. In our theory, the principal may delegate partial authority to a privately-informed agent while also reserving some authority for the principal’s use after observing the agent’s decision. Counterintuitively, the equilibrium amount of authority delegated to t...

The project of a new, common currency in Europe has raised a tremendous wave of emotions. This can mainly be explained by the uncertain socio-economic consequences of this institutional innovation. The European Monetary Union (EMU) should be regarded more as a political project and not so much as an economic project. That is, the idea of EMU was not derived straightforwardly from an approach ba...

Despite their common Ottoman heritage, Greece and Turkey have diverged widely in their modem history of civil-military relations. The armed forces have a long record of intervention in both countries, but there is a crucial difference: the military emerged as a roughly unitary, independent political actor in Turkey, whereas in Greece it remained divided into factions aligned with civilian polit...