The historical pedigree and meaning of ‘‘information’’ has been hotly contested since its scientific definition in the 1940s. Scientists have authored very different explanations for the origins of informational research, the scope of information theory, and the historical significance of its findings. This survey classifies the historical literature into genres, offering a view into the changi...

Geometrical meaning of superstring pictures is discussed in details. An off-shell generalization of the picture changing operation and its inverse are constructed. It is demonstrated that the generalised operations are inverse to each other on-shell while off-shell their product is a projection operator.

In Czech and in Russian there is a set of prefixes changing the meaning of imperfective verbs always in the same manner. The change often (in Czech always) demands adding a reflexive morpheme. This feature can be used for automatic recognition of words, without the need to store them in morphological dictionaries.

Side-effects are widely believed to impede program comprehension and have a detrimental effect upon software maintenance. This paper introduces an algorithm for side-effect removal which splits the side-effects into their pure expression meaning and their state-changing meaning. Symbolic execution is used to determine the expression meaning, while transformation is used to place the statechangi...