Heterogeneity of infectiousness is an important feature of the spread of many infections, with implications for disease dynamics and control, but its relevance to human influenza virus is still unclear. For a transmission event to occur, an infected individual needs to release infectious particles via respiratory symptoms. Key factors to take into account are virus dynamics, particle release in...

1. During influenza infections, most viral shedding occurs within a few days of illness onset. 2. Children may be more infectious than adults because they shed more virus. 3. The degree of viral shedding (infectiousness) correlates with symptoms and tympanic temperature.

Despite the recognized importance of fecal/oral transmission of low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) via contaminated wetlands, little is known about the length, quantity, or route of AI virus shed by wild waterfowl. We used published laboratory challenge studies to evaluate the length and quantity of low pathogenic (LP) and highly pathogenic (HP) virus shed via oral and cloacal routes by AI-i...

An experimental infection with highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) and low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) viruses was carried out on falcons in order to examine the effects of these viruses in terms of pathogenesis, viral distribution in tissues and viral shedding. The distribution pattern of influenza virus receptors was also assessed. Captive-reared gyr-saker (Falco rusticolus x Falco...

One con transpor pumps’. *Autho Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PT, UK Laboratoire de Biologie et Physiopathologie des Systèmes Intégrés, CNRS-Universite de Nice, FRE 3094, Parc Valrose, Nice Cedex 2, France Bristol Institute for Transfusion Sciences, National Blood Service, Southmead, Bristol BS10 5ND, UK Department of Medicine, University Coll...

Policy makers and static economic models often argue that contingent fees cause lawyers to settle cases sooner than their clients would like, so as to avoid accumulating costs of bargaining. Yet, in a dynamic setting, a willingness to sink costs can be a strategic advantage when seeking to establish the credibility of threats. This paper shows that this can be the case for cost-bearing continge...

Although the Google Books Settlement has been criticized as anticompetitive, I conclude that this critique is mistaken. For out-of-copyright books, the settlement procompetitively expands output by clarifying which books are in the public domain and making them digitally available for free. For claimed in-copyright books, the settlement procompetitively expands output by clarifying who holds th...

Alternative payment instruments are studied in an economy with private information, delayed communication, and limited commitment. Attention is restricted to checks and bank drafts, which differ in resource cost and communication characteristics. Checks are less costly but settlement delays create a limited commitment constraint. We Þnd that drafts dominate at low wealths and checks at higher w...