Hosts are expected to incur several physiological costs in defending against parasites. These include constitutive energetic (or other resource) costs of a defence system, facultative resource costs of deploying defences when parasites strike, and immunopathological costs of collateral damage. Here, we investigate the evolution of host recovery rates, varying the source and magnitude of immune ...

BACKGROUND Excessive alcohol consumption causes premature death (average of 79,000 deaths annually); increased disease and injury; property damage from fire and motor vehicle crashes; alcohol-related crime; and lost productivity. However, its economic cost has not been assessed for the U.S. since 1998. PURPOSE To update prior national estimates of the economic costs of excessive drinking. M...

Introduction. Like most consumer goods, cigarettes have both costs and benefits. The chief benefits are the satisfaction and enjoyment that smokers receive from smoking. There are also profits to producers. The chief costs are death and disability among smokers themselves. Other costs, which are much smaller, include health damage to non-smokers from passive smoking. In conventional economics, ...

The article is devoted to the analysis of legal provisions, positions doctrine and judgments judicature concerning fixing by insurance companies costs repairing a damaged vehicle in voluntary motor contracts. study presents concept nature this contract, with particular emphasis on restriction principle freedom contracts under art. 353 1 Civil Code as well improper practices field settlement rep...

Economic impacts of agricultural carbon sequestration involve direct costs of sequestration management adoption as well as a variety of indirect costs and benefits. The nature and significance of these impacts are discussed. Spatial and temporal heterogeneity in agriculture is identified as an influential factor. Techniques to estimate the cost of agricultural carbon sequestration are briefly r...

Significant damage of transportation infrastructure systems usually occurs during a major earthquake event. The impacts of bridge damage include not only short-term costs of structural repair, but also long-term economic consequences. In addition to initial replacement or repair costs of damage to the transportation structures, large earthquakes increase delays because of network components sev...

We consider the pricing of a uniformly mixed pollutant with a model of optimal, possibly firm-specific, emissions taxes and their enforcement under incomplete information about firms’ abatement costs, enforcement costs, and pollution damage. We argue that optimality requires an enforcement strategy that induces full compliance by every firm, except possibly when a regulator can base the probabi...

Concrete infrastructure systems require large capital investments and resource flows to construct and maintain. An integrated life cycle assessment and cost model was developed to evaluate infrastructure sustainability, and compare alternative materials and designs using environmental, economic and social indicators. The model is applied to two alternative concrete bridge deck designs: one a co...