The community matrix is potentially a powerful tool for community ecology. While it details direct interactions between community members, it can also be used to quantify all indirect effects that occur in a community, and thereby to make predictions regarding population response to experimental treatments or natural disturbances. These predictions are essentially hypotheses of system behavior ...

Reinforcement learning (RL) algorithms have been successfully applied to a range of challenging sequential decision-making and control tasks. In this paper, we classify RL into direct indirect according how they seek the optimal policy Markov decision process problem. The former solves by directly maximizing an objective function using gradient descent methods, in which is usually expectation a...

This report compares two types of classroom testing in terms of efficacy in guiding instruction. One type of testing is the traditional indirect method based on the observation of choices. The other type is the direct method based on admissible probability measurement. The general finding is that the direct methods always perform as well as and in most cases better than the indirect methods. Th...

INTRODUCTION Hemolytic disease of the newborn was first described in the medical literature 1609, when it was diagnosed in one French housewife. In 1932 Diamond and colleagues described the mutual relationship of fetal hydrops, jaundice, anemia and erythoblastosis, which was later called fetal erytroblastosis. Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) in the strict sense is considered disease whos...

Contradictory results have been reported regarding the accuracy of various methods used to assess student learning in higher education. The current study examined student learning outcomes across a multi-section and multiinstructor psychology research course with both indirect and direct assessments in a sample of 67 undergraduate students. The indirect method measured student perceived knowled...

The effects of Brexit on British foreign, security and defence policy have been complex. Initial efforts to agree structured cooperation failed, with later governments refusing negotiate this area, followed by unstructured re-engagement after Russia’s invasion Ukraine. This article argues that these changes can be explained reference the factional politics during negotiations within Conservativ...

OBJECTIVE The present research addresses the question of how trust in systems is formed when unequivocal information about system accuracy and reliability is absent, and focuses on the interaction of indirect information (others' evaluations) and direct (experiential) information stemming from the interaction process. BACKGROUND Trust in decision-supporting technology, such as route planners,...