Long-term memory formation is sensitive to the pattern of training sessions. Training distributed over time (spaced training) is superior at generating long-term memories than training presented with little or no rest interval (massed training). This spacing effect was observed in a range of organisms from invertebrates to humans. In the present paper, we discuss the evidence supporting cyclic-...

I. INTRODUCTION In recent years, there has been a verifiable increase in the use of virtual reality (VR) simulation technology for clinical purposes. Although results are varied, studies have shown evidence that the use of VR in surgical training results in improvement in practicing surgical skills. Unfortunately, such simulators are expensive and thus are not targeted for use by student popula...

How can we improve memory retention? A large body of research has suggested that difficulty encountered during learning, such as when practice sessions are distributed rather than massed, can enhance later memory performance (see R. A. Bjork & E. L. Bjork, 1992). Here, we investigated whether divided attention during retrieval practice can also constitute a desirable difficulty. Following two i...

Problem statement: Although a conventional tactile display can generate distributed pressure, our tactile mouse can generate not only distributed pressure but also slippage force. In previous works, this tactile mouse was effective on virtual figure presentation tests. Advanced tests are required to evaluate this tactile display. Approach: To compare virtual reality presented by the present tac...

Most long-term memories are formed as a consequence of multiple experiences. The temporal spacing of these experiences is of considerable importance: experiences distributed over time (spaced training) are more easily encoded and remembered than either closely spaced experiences, or a single prolonged experience (massed training). In this article, we first review findings from studies in animal...

How can we improve memory retention? A large body of research suggests that difficulty encountered during learning, such as when practice sessions are distributed rather than massed, can enhance later memory performance (see Bjork & Bjork, 1992). Here, we investigated whether divided attention during retrieval practice can also constitute a desirable difficulty. Following two initial study phas...

Four experiments investigated the effects of testing and spacing on the learning of face-name stimulus-response pairs. Experiments 1a and 1b compared the recall of names following intervening tests versus additional study opportunities and found that testing produced better retention of names. Experiments 2 and 3 explored the effects of repeated tests versus study for massed, uniform, or expand...

The spacing effect is the commonly observed phenomenon that memory for spaced repetitions is better than memory for massed repetitions. To further investigate the role of rehearsal in spacing effects, three experiments were conducted. With pure lists we found spacing effects in free recall when spacing intervals were relatively long (Experiments 1, 2 and 3), but not when spacing intervals were ...