Debates about affirmative action often revolve around fairness. Accordingly, we document substantial heterogeneity in the fairness perception of various policies. But do these differences translate into different consequences? In a laboratory experiment, study three quota rules that favor individuals whose performance is low, either due to bad luck (discrimination), low productivity, or choice ...

In this paper we use micro-level data on employers and employees to investigate whether Affirmative Action procedures lead firms to hire minority or female employees who are less qualified than workers who might otherwise be hired. Our measures of qualifications include the educational attainment of the workers hired (both absolute and relative to job requirements), skill requirements of the jo...

We propose that White men derive a psychological benefit from believing that affirmative action is a quota-based policy. Three studies provide evidence that quota beliefs protect White men’s self-esteem by boosting their sense of self-competence. Study 1 found a positive relationship between quota beliefs and self-esteem that was mediated by self-perceived competence. In Studies 2 and 3, the be...