Purpose: In post-traumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA), inflammation plays a central role in which macrophages the synovium are classically activated to M1-like state and secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines. The ensuing chronic loop of self-perpetuating tissue damage macrophage activation ultimately exacerbates cartilage degradation joint degeneration. When polarized an anti-inflammatory M2-like pheno...

By: John Duncan MRC Applied Psychology Unit, Cambridge, England Glyn W. Humphreys Birkbeck College, University of London, London, England Financial support was provided by the MRC Applied Psychology Unit, where the work was carried out. The second author's research is also supported by grants from the Medical Research Council, Economic and Social Research Council, and Science and Engineering Re...