This paper points out the merit of Nagelian reduction, namely to propose a model of intertheoretic reduction that retains the scientific quality of the reduced theory, and the merit of functional reduction, namely to take multiple realization into account and to offer reductive explanations. By considering Lewis’ and Kim’s proposal for local reductions, we establish that functional reduction fa...

When a study outcome is rare in all strata used for an analysis, the odds ratio estimate of causal effects will approximate the risk ratio; therefore, odds ratios from most case-control studies can be interpreted as risk ratios. However, if a study outcome is common, the odds ratio will be further from 1 than the risk ratio. There is debate regarding the merits of risk ratios compared with odds...

the medical education exists to maintain and regulate the standards of medical practice, protect the interests of the patients, supervise medical students, and give guidelines on ethical issues. the educational ethics provide general guidelines, and any disciplinary designated and will judge each case on its merits. this is not a comprehensive document and interpretation will depend upon circum...