Functional optical imaging showed that odor or electric shock stimuli presented to the fly causes transient calcium influx into the two major axon branches of a/b mushroom body (MB) neurons. One pairing of odor and electric shock stimuli or multiple, massed pairings did not alter odor-evoked calcium influx. In contrast, animals that received multiple, spaced pairings exhibited a robust increase...

Animals acquire predictive values of sensory stimuli through reinforcement. In the brain of Drosophila melanogaster, activation of two types of dopamine neurons in the PAM and PPL1 clusters has been shown to induce aversive odor memory. Here, we identified the third cell type and characterized aversive memories induced by these dopamine neurons. These three dopamine pathways all project to the ...

A technology for automatically creating and adding sound to interactive CG animations of spark discharges in an efficient way has been developed. In the procedure proposed in this paper, the user inputs the electric charge distribution, boundary conditions and other parameters affecting the initiation of electric discharges in virtual space. The animation of the discharge is then created by gen...

As well known, ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs) are used to protect people from electric shock. Recently, a manufacturer installed variable speesd drives (VSDs) in all their products. After receiving feedback from their customers, they realized that their products would only work when powered through some GFCI outlets but not work when powered through others. To investigate this proble...

Ethical considerations can limit the use of traditional unconditional stimuli (US), such as electric shock and loud tones, when used in a human aversive Pavlovian conditioning procedure. The risk of the US causing pain or excessive anxiety is a particular concern when testing sensitive populations such as children, the elderly, and those with psychological or neurodevelopmental disorders. Two e...

Within a honey bee colony, individuals performing different tasks exhibit different sensitivities to noxious stimuli. Noxious-stimulus sensitivity can be quantified in harnessed bees by measuring the sting extension response (SER) to a series of increasing voltages. Biogenic amines play a crucial role in the control of insect responsiveness. Whether or not these neurotransmitters affect the cen...

Paired rats are known to behave aggressively when given painful electric shocks. The present study developed a procedure whereby individual rats given shocks might bite an inanimate target object. Unavoidable shock was delivered to the rat while it was restrained in a position close to, and facing a target object. Biting of the target was recorded automatically. Shock caused the rat to bite met...

1. Rats were undernourished in early life by feeding their mothers a restricted quantity of a good-quality diet during pregnancy and lactation. All offspring were fed ad lib. from weaning. Behavioural tests were done using adult males. 2. Thresholds of aversion to electric shock were determined in a rectangular box, one side of which was designated 'live' and the other 'safe' (o V side) for any...

Rats received electric shock that was preceded by either a warning signal, a series of signals forming an "external clock," or no signal at all. In all conditions, subjects which could avoid and/or escape shock developed less ulceration than, did yoked "helpless" animals which received exactly the same shock (through fixed electrodes wired in series) but had no control over shock. Presence or a...

Formation of normal olfactory memory requires the expression of the wild-type amnesiac gene in the dorsal paired medial (DPM) neurons. Imaging the activity in the processes of DPM neurons revealed that the neurons respond when the fly is stimulated with electric shock or with any odor that was tested. Pairing odor and electric-shock stimulation increases odor-evoked calcium signals and synaptic...