Abstract Purpose of review This paper reviews all optogenetic studies that directly test various sleep states, traits, and circuit-level activity profiles for the consolidation different learning tasks. Recent findings Inhibiting or exciting neurons involved either in production states encoding memories reveals traits are essential memory. REM sleep, NREM N2 transition to (characterized by spin...

The feedforward dentate gyrus-CA3 microcircuit in the hippocampus is thought to activate ensembles of CA3 pyramidal cells and interneurons to encode and retrieve episodic memories. The creation of these CA3 ensembles depends on neuromodulatory input and synaptic plasticity within this microcircuit. Here we review the mechanisms by which the neuromodulators aceylcholine, noradrenaline, dopamine,...

Vertebrate locomotion must be adaptable in light of changing environmental, organismal, and developmental demands. Much of the underlying flexibility in the output of central pattern generating (CPG) networks of the spinal cord and brain stem is endowed by neuromodulation. This review provides a synthesis of current knowledge on the way that various neuromodulators modify the properties of and ...

The pathogenesis of idiopathic restless legs syndrome (iRLS) is not well established, but the most important hypothesis suggests dopaminergic dysfunction and iron deficiency. However, recent reports suggest a possible role for several neurotransmitters or neuromodulators, such as aspartate, glutamate, gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GABA) and opiates, as well as relation with vitamin D deficiency. I...