·rn Rogers (1997b) we introduced a new dass of models, three-dimensional tree manifolds (3-TM), that can serve as both thc derived and clerivation structures for TAGs in the same way that trees serve as both clerived and derivation structures for CFGs. The1->e tree-manifolds are higher-dimensional analogs of trees; in a 3-Tl'v! the children of a node form an o~·dinary (two-dimensional) tree jus...

We provide strong evidence that sub-tree swapping crossover when applied to tree-based representations will cause alleles (node labels) to diffuse within length classes. For a-ary trees we provide further confirmation that all programs are equally likely to be sampled within any length class when sub-tree swapping crossover is applied in the absence of selection and mutation. Therefore, we prop...

Abstract. In relative clauses, the wh relative pronoun can be embedded in a larger phrase, as in “a boy [whose brother] Mary hit” and “a boy [whose brother’s friend] Mary hit”. In such examples, we say that the larger phrase containing the wh-word has pied-piped along with the wh-word. In this paper, using a similar syntactic analysis for wh pied-piping as in Han (2002) and further developed in...

This paper introduces a tree-form constant market share (CMS) analysis for modelling growth causes in international trade between a focus country and a single destination based on a complex data set classified at three levels. Basic properties of this model are investigated briefly. The application of this model is discussed in detail. The tree-form CMS is a collection of the CMS models at diff...

We consider several aspects of Wilke’s [T. Wilke, An algebraic characterization of frontier testable tree languages, Theoret. Comput. Sci. 154 (1996) 85–106] tree algebra formalism for representing binary labelled trees and compare it with approaches that represent trees as terms in the traditional way. A convergent term rewriting system yields normal form representations of binary trees and co...

ecological changes resulting from climate conditions can severely affect human societies especially in the area of economy and safety. climate catastrophes may cause social and economic tension. forecasting such changes accurately can help the government to control the disasters and to achieve possible benefits (such as water supply in flood). weather forecasting is the application of science a...

desired physical form of cities has been noticeable since the beginning of urbanization, from old patterns of early civilizations to the latest urbanism’s theories, which offered to build better cities. the opinions in recent decades have expressed that compact physical form of cities is a better form than sprawl form to achieve urban sustainability. the form of the city is the embodiment of it...

The Steiner tree problem is deened as follows-given a graph G = (V; E) and a subset X V of terminals, compute a minimum cost tree that includes all nodes in X. Furthermore, it is reasonable to assume that the edge costs form a metric. This problem is NP-hard and has been the study of many heuristics and algorithms. We study a generalization of this problem, where there is a \switch" cost in add...