Background Traditional vaccines (killed or inactivated) played vital roles in controlling and eradicating infectious diseases for a long time. Antigen-specific T cell response can be induced when mice are intramuscularly inoculated with naked plasmid DNA. Therefore, DNA vaccines were evaluated in many studies, demonstrating its safety, stability and easy production. Furthermore, it has been rep...

The only licensed vaccine Mycobacterium bovis Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) cannot prevent the prevalence of tuberculosis (TB), which remains a major public health problem worldwide. A more effective TB vaccine than BCG is urgently needed. Subunit vaccine is a promising strategy, and suitable adjuvants will benefit the development of effective TB subunit vaccines. MTO, consisting of monophosph...

Introduction O f all medical innovations, vaccines have had by far the greatest impact in reducing the morbidity and mortality of infectious diseases. Although antigens have always been the lead products of the vaccine industry, over the last decade adjuvants have received far greater attention. The first vaccine adjuvants were developed in the 1920’s, when it was found that addition of irritan...

Vaccines remain the main tool for the control of livestock viral diseases that pose a serious threat to animal and occasionally human health, reduce food security, distort trade in animals and their products, and undermine agricultural development in poor countries. Globalization and climate change increase the likelihood for new patterns of emergence and spread of livestock viruses. Convention...

leishmaniasis is one of the major health problems and categorized as a class i disease (emerging and uncontrolled) by world health organization (who), causing highly significant morbidity and mortality. indeed, more than 350 million individuals are at risk of leishmania infection, and about 1.6 million new cases occur causing more than 50 thousands death annually. because of the severe toxicity...

Covid-19 has killed more than 7 million people in the world so far. With general vaccination 2021, severity of deaths decreased significantly, but after 6 months, new types emerged and incidence increased. Epidemiological studies showed that despite high number deaths, reduced disease population. Many researchers did not suggest injecting third fourth doses due to antigenic changes virus, some ...

Pertussis is a truly unique contagious respiratory disease [1–4]. It is mainly caused by Bordetella pertussis, but similar cough illnesses can be caused by B. parapertussis in young children and B. holmesii in adolescents and adults. (The remainder of this communication will be restricted to B. pertussis infection and illness.) Illness due to B. pertussis has a number of characteristics that di...

Rabies is a zoonotic virus that is extremely lethal to humans and many wildlife species such as raccoons, skunks, foxes, as well as domestic animals such as cats, dogs, and livestock. Reservoirs of the rabies virus throughout species specific populations pose an enormous risk of exposure and infection of domestic animals that have direct contact with humans. The most effective way to prevent wi...

Despite intense efforts there is no safe and efficacious vaccine against visceral leishmaniasis, which is fatal and endemic in many tropical countries. A major shortcoming in the vaccine development against blood-borne parasitic agents such as Leishmania is the inadequate predictive power of the early immune responses mounted in the host against the experimental vaccines. Often immune correlate...