The knowledge about electrophysiological properties of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), as well as modulation of these properties, is important not only for understanding the unique physiological functions of RGCs under normal conditions, but also for exploring the cellular mechanisms of retinal neurodegeneration diseases, such as glaucoma. In this paper, we reviewed the progress in electrophysio...

Phospholipids (PLs) of neuronal membranes are active universal neuromodulators. They regulate many functions of the neurons, including receptors signaling, which during a hemorrhagic shock (HS) get damaged, leading to encephalopathy. An analysis of the data, presented in this review, suggests that the dysregulation of PL metabolism in synaptic membranes is a key mechanism of encephalopathy duri...

The role of CNS neuromodulators in cognitive neurorehabilitation can be related to two main issues: 1) the negative impact on cognition of drug categories prescribed for different neurologic symptoms, such as spasticity, extrapyramidal symptoms, or epileptic seizures; 2) their possible role in neuroprotection and amelioration of the cognitive status of the patient, especially attention and memo...

Central pattern generators (CPGs) are neuronal networks that control vitally important rhythmic behaviors including breathing, heartbeat, and digestion. Understanding how CPGs recover activity after their rhythmic activity is disrupted has important theoretical and practical implications. Previous experimental and modeling studies indicated that rhythm recovery after central neuromodulatory inp...

INTRODUCTION: Aesthetic soft tissue facial augmentation using neuromodulators and dermal fillers has become ubiquitous in the United States, accounting for over 8 million minimally invasive procedures performed in 2013. 1 Despite high rates of satisfaction, these facial rejuvenation procedures are not without complications, including pain, edema and erythema post-treatment. 3 We present a pre-t...

Pupillometry has long been used as a measure of brain state. Changes in pupil diameter are thought to coincide with the activity of neuromodulators, including noradrenaline and acetylcholine, producing alterations in the brain state and corresponding changes in behavior. Here we review mechanisms underlying the control of pupil diameter and how these mechanisms are correlated with changes in co...