Marine tourism is promoted as a substitute economic activity to unsustainable fishing, which compatible with conservation. However, benefits of marine do not typically accrue in small-scale fisheries (SSFs), often bear the costs conservation; they tourists and tourist-focussed businesses. We explored how levies could operationalise beneficiary-pays principle address these cost-benefit inequitie...

Spatial heterogeneity in the strength of trophic interactions is a fundamental property of food web spatial dynamics. The feeding effort of herbivores should reflect adaptive decisions that only become rewarding when foraging gains exceed 1) the metabolic costs, 2) the missed opportunity costs of not foraging elsewhere, and 3) the foraging costs of anti-predator behaviour. Two aspects of these ...