The Toll family of class I transmembrane receptors recognizes and responds to diverse structures associated with pathogenic microorganisms. These receptors mediate initial responses in innate immunity and are required for the development of the adaptive immune response. Toll receptor signaling pathways are also implicated in serious autoimmune diseases such as endotoxic shock and thus are impor...

Toll receptors are type I transmembrane proteins that play important roles in development and immunity in animals. Comparison of the genomes of mouse and human on one side and of the fruitfly Drosophila and the mosquito Anopheles (two dipteran insects) on the other, revealed that the four species possess a similar number of Toll receptors (approximately 10). However, phylogenetic analyses indic...

Drosophila Toll receptors are involved in embryonic development and the immune response of adult flies. In both processes, the only known Toll receptor ligand is the human nerve growth factor-like cystine knot protein Spätzle. Here we present the crystal structure of a 1:1 (nonsignaling) complex of the full-length Toll receptor ectodomain (ECD) with the Spätzle cystine knot domain dimer. The EC...

A bacterial infection that affects the periodontium in various ways is called periodontitis. Bacterial plaque triggers inflammatory response host, which damages host's tissue. In to microbial invasion, it now understood immune system uses a family of pattern-recognition receptors termed Toll-like as mechanism initiate an response. TLRs, or toll-like receptors, were first identified drosophila a...

In the last few years an increasing number of very large, publicly funded, IT development projects have gained significant media attention due to cases of budget overrun, management problems or outright failure. Examples of such projects include the European Galileo, the German Toll Collect project, or the Australian Custom’s Integrated Cargo System (ICS). Further projects in an earlier lifecyc...

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BACKGROUND Accumulating evidence supports a role for the immune system in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. Importantly, recent preclinical studies are now suggesting a specific contribution of inflammation to the α-synuclein-induced pathology seen in this condition. METHODS We used flow cytometry and western blots to detect toll-like receptor 2 and 4 expression in blood and brain samp...

Weaknesses in governance led to avoidable mistakes, says Chris Ham, as the UK death toll from covid-19 passes 100 000

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) act as the first line of defense against bacterial and viral pathogens by initiating critical defense signals upon dimer activation. The contribution of the transmembrane domain in the dimerization and signaling process has heretofore been overlooked in favor of the extracellular and intracellular domains. As mounting evidence suggests that the transmembrane domain is...