Cytochromes of the c type in the gram-positive bacterium Bacillus subtilis are all membrane anchored, with their heme domains exposed on the outer side of the cytoplasmic membrane. They are distinguished from other cytochromes by having heme covalently attached by two thioether bonds. The cysteinyls in the heme-binding site (CXXCH) in apocytochrome c must be reduced in order for the covalent at...

Thiol-disulfide oxidoreductases are required for disulfide bond formation in proteins that are exported from the cytoplasm. Four enzymes of this type, termed BdbA, BdbB, BdbC, and BdbD, have been identified in the Gram-positive eubacterium Bacillus subtilis. BdbC and BdbD have been shown to be critical for the folding of a protein required for DNA uptake during natural competence. In contrast, ...

Objective: Under physiologic conditions in animals and pathologic conditions in humans, purinergic mechanisms contribute significantly to detrusor contractions. Although the activation of P2X1 receptors (P2X1R) accounts for the largest portion of bladder smooth muscle (BSM) responses to ATP, previous reports have shown that P2X1R antagonists do not completely abolish the purinergic component of...

ATP modulates various functions in the dental pulp cells, such as intercellular communication and neurotransmission between odontoblasts and neurons, proliferation of dental pulp cells, and odontoblast differentiation. However, functional expression patterns and their biophysical properties of ionotropic ATP (P2X) receptors (P2X1-P2X7) in odontoblasts were still unclear. We examined these prope...

The circadian rhythms in physiological and behavioral functions are driven by a pacemaker located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). The rhythms continue in constant darkness and depend on cell-cell communication between neurons and glia. The SCN astrocytes generate also a circadian rhythm in extracellular adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) accumulation, but molecular mechanisms that regulate A...

Monocytes and macrophages express a repertoire of cell surface P2 receptors for adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) a damage-associated molecular pattern molecule (DAMP), which are capable of raising cytoplasmic calcium when activated. This is achieved either through direct permeation (ionotropic P2X receptors) or by mobilizing intracellular calcium stores (metabotropic P2Y receptors). Here, a side...

P2X4 receptor (P2X4R) is the most widely expressed subtype of the P2XRs in the purinergic receptor family. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a ligand for this receptor, has been implicated in the pathogenesis of asthma. ATP‑P2X4R signaling is involved in pulmonary vascular remodeling, and in the proliferation and differentiation of airway and alveolar epithelial cell lines. However, the role of P2X...

Calcium flux in the podocytes is critical for normal and pathophysiological regulation of these types of cells, and excessive calcium signaling results in podocytes damage and improper glomeruli function. Purinergic activation of P2 receptors is a powerful and rapid signaling process; however, the exact physiological identity of P2 receptors subtypes in podocytes remains essentially unknown. Th...