Almost all animal cells maintain a resting membrane potential of −70mV. For some cells, it is important for their function to rapidly vary their membrane potential. Such cells are known as excitable cells. Examples of excitable cells include neurons in the nervous system, muscle cells in the heart and skeletal muscle, sensory cells and endocrine cells. The rapid changes in membrane potential ta...

All living cells have a membrane which separates inside the cell from it's outside. There is a potential difference between inside and outside of the cell. This potential difference will change during an action potential. It is quite common to peruse action potentials of skeletal muscle fibers with the Hodgkin-Huxley model. Since Hodgkin and Huxley summarized some controlling currents like inwa...

in this paper, tender problems in an automobile company for procuring needed items from potential suppliers have been resolved by the learning algorithm q. in this case the purchaser with respect to proposals received from potential providers, including price and delivery time is proposed; order the needed parts to suppliers assigns. the buyer’s objective is minimizing the procurement costs thr...

a r t i c l e i n f o Animals are remarkably well equipped to respond to changes in their environment across different time scales and levels of biological organization. Here, I introduce a novel perspective that incorporates the three main processes the nervous system uses to integrate and process information: electrophysiological, genomic, and neuroendocrine action potentials. After discussin...

In the previous notes, we described the action potential for a “point” cell, so that we could use an ODE model. Here, we consider propagation of the action potential along an axon. Consider a system in which the intracellular and extracellular spaces are separated by a cell membrane. Let x be the one-dimensional spatial coordinate, and consider current conservation in the intracellular region c...

The plant action potential (AP) has been studied for more than half a century. The experimental system was provided mainly by the large charophyte cells, which allowed insertion of early large electrodes, manipulation of cell compartments, and inside and outside media. These early experiments were inspired by the Hodgkin and Huxley (HH) work on the squid axon and its voltage clamp techniques. L...