This article is an attempt to survey the contraction and cancellation of the Reuter’s agreement as a one-sided approach and from special perspective, by using minimalistic ideology and with emphasis on multi-sided and various reasons and factors effective in the process of this contract.  On the basis of this research, in this contraction, different factors came together and augmented one anoth...

For more than a century ecologists have considered that competitive interactions between species are more intense at low latitudes [1,2]. This is frequently invoked as either an explanation or a consequence of higher species richness in the tropics, also suggesting that competition shifts from intra- to inter-specific towards the tropics [1]. Another common assumption is that within a community...

BACKGROUND Allometric studies have shown that individual growth rate is inversely related to body size across a broad spectrum of organisms that vary greatly in size. Fewer studies have documented such patterns within species. No data exist directly documenting the influence of colony size on growth rate for microscopic, colonial organisms. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS To determine if simil...

Whether an animal lives alone or in a group may have fitness consequences. Among yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris), fitness is thought to be lower for noncolonial than for colonial females because juvenile survival, as indicated by trapping, is lower. Trapping, however, may not be an accurate estimate of survival. Low recapture rates of noncolonial juveniles may result from early di...

Competition between conspecifics during the breeding season can result in behavioural and physiological programming of offspring via maternal effects. For birds, in which maternal effects are best studied, it has been claimed that exposure to increased competition causes greater deposition of testosterone into egg yolks, which creates faster growing, more aggressive offspring; such traits are t...

Most postcolonial African writers choose English as the language of their literary works for the reason of wider audience reception but come to indigenize it to decolonize the colonial tool, i.e. colonial language. The translinguistic process of relexification means subverting colonial cultural imperialism and colonial linguistic imposition through the dialogic interaction opened in the w...

Organisms often exhibit behavioral or phenotypic diversity to improve population fitness in the face of environmental variability. When each behavior or phenotype is individually maladaptive, alternating between these losing strategies can counter-intuitively result in population persistence-an outcome similar to the Parrondo's paradox. Instead of the capital or history dependence that characte...

Rauch (JIE, Vol.48, 1999) proposes the hypothesis that proximity and common language / colonial ties are more important for differentiated products than for homogeneous products in forming price information and matching international buyers and sellers. His gravity-model analysis, however, is not able to show strong evidence to support this hypothesis. In this paper, by using SITC and monopolis...