Culture-independent methods, employed to study the diversity and complexity of microbial communities that are based on amplification of rRNA genes with universal primers, include gradient gel electrophoresis (denaturing or temperature), single-strand-conformation polymorphism, restriction fragment length polymorphism, qPCR and highthroughput DNA sequencing. Substituting one or more base(s) with...

DNA polymerases cannot initiate the synthesis of new DNA chains, they can only elongate pre-existing primers. The opposite polarities of the two strands of the double helix coupled with the 5′r3′ polarity of the polymerase means that replication occurs relatively continuously on one (leading) strand and discontinuously on the other (lagging) strand. The continuous strand probably needs to be pr...

ninety one monoconidial bipolaris isolates were obtained from lesions on different parts of rice in different locations of mazandaran province during the summer of 2009. bipolaris species were identified using morphological features such as color and shape of colony and color and size of conidia and conidiophores. the isolates were separated into two species; 85 (93.4%) isolates belonged to bip...