Abstract Effective management of depleted natural resources can be achieved only through changes in human actions. Opportunity costs represent the forgone benefits that would have flowed absence conservation interventions. To extent opportunity reflect lost opportunities for extractive uses (e.g., fishing or logging), and to those present threats nature, therefore positive differences values ma...

The notion of "opportunity cost" has been neglected in economics. reason is that any such measure cost invisible, unobservable, and untestable. Yet the so-called 'competitive ideal' neoclassical theory based on claims decreasing returns substitutional tradeoffs production, consumption social relations, therewith an exclusive focus scarcity Within this view, collusion suspect: it raises prices, ...

Forest biomass may vary by species composition, location, management regimes, and interventions. To assess the variation in production we conducted a study three physiographic regions (mid-hills, Siwaliks Terai) of Nepal with four different regimes (community forest, collaborative protected area, forest). As community forest is dominant regime Nepal, it was studied all whereas other two were dr...