Pathogens have evolved elaborate mechanisms to invade plant tissues and cause disease. Plants, in turn, respond to pathogen infection by expressing multiple layers of resistance. Once low energy ‘basal’ defences of plant cells have been overcome by pathogens, the plant can employ a more energy costly system of nonself recognition that triggers an ‘acute’ immune response. The survival of plants ...

In "gene-for-gene" interactions between plants and their pathogens, incompatibility (no disease) requires a dominant or semidominant resistance (R) gene in the plant, and a corresponding avirulence (Avr) gene in the pathogen. Many plant/pathogen interactions are of this type. R genes are presumed to (a) enable plants to detect Avr-gene-specified pathogen molecules, (b) initiate signal transduct...

blackleg disease of oilseed rape, caused by leptosphaeria maculans, is one of the three most important diseases of the plant in iran. it is also considered as one of the most important diseases of oilseed rape worldwide which causes serious yield losses. during 2010 the oilseed rape fields were surveyed at province golestan and plant samples demonstrating suspected symptoms of the disease were ...

fast development of aquaculture and increasing fish demand lead to intensification of fish culture, magnifying stressors for fish and thus heightening the risk of disease until now, chemotherapy has been widely used to prevent and treat disease outbreaks, although use of chemical drugs has multiple negative impacts on environment and human health e.g. resistant bacterial strains and residual ac...