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Secondary bacterial infections are a leading cause of illness and death during epidemic and pandemic influenza. Experimental studies suggest a lethal synergism between influenza and certain bacteria, particularly Streptococcus pneumoniae, but the precise processes involved are unclear. To address the mechanisms and determine the influences of pathogen dose and strain on disease, we infected gro...

Until now, mortality and spreading mechanisms of influenza pandemics have been studied only for the 1918, 1957, and 1968 pandemics; none have concerned the 19th century. Herein, we examined the 1889 "Russian" pandemic. Clinical attack rates were retrieved for 408 geographic entities in 14 European countries and in the United States. Case fatality ratios were estimated from datasets in the Frenc...

BACKGROUND The causes of recurrent waves in the 1918-1919 influenza pandemic are not fully understood. OBJECTIVES To identify the risk factors for influenza onset, spread and mortality in waves 1, 2 and 3 (summer, autumn and winter) in England and Wales in 1918-1919. METHODS Influenza mortality rates for 333 population units and putative risk factors were analysed by correlation and by regr...

Nonpharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) intended to reduce infectious contacts between persons form an integral part of plans to mitigate the impact of the next influenza pandemic. Although the potential benefits of NPIs are supported by mathematical models, the historical evidence for the impact of such interventions in past pandemics has not been systematically examined. We obtained data on th...

The type material of the Oriental Carpelimus species from five museums have been investigated. Thirty four lectotypes are designated for the following species: Trogophloeus bengalensis Cameron, 1930; T. bicolor Cameron, 1940; T. calcuttanus Bemhauer, 1911; T. chatterjeei Cameron, 1930; T. congruus Cameron, 1930;T. coriaceus Cameron, 1930; T. flavipennis Cameron, 1930; T. formosae Cameron, 1940;...

BACKGROUND Despite the availability of published data on 4 pandemics that have occurred over the past 120 years, there is little modern information on the causes of death associated with influenza pandemics. METHODS We examined relevant information from the most recent influenza pandemic that occurred during the era prior to the use of antibiotics, the 1918-1919 "Spanish flu" pandemic. We exa...

The Spanish Flu is a term which denotes an influenza pandemic which emerged in 1918. This disease has numerous synonyms: the Spanish Flu, La Grippe espagnole, the Spanish Influenza and it is also possible to encounter throughout the world such names as the Spanish Lady or the Purple Death. The latter name resulted from the specific skin colour in the most severe cases of the diseased, who by th...

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