We propose a critique of normativism, defined as the idea that human thinking reflects a normative system against which it should be measured and judged. We analyze the methodological problems associated with normativism, proposing that it invites the controversial "is-ought" inference, much contested in the philosophical literature. This problem is triggered when there are competing normative ...

What should psychotherapists be aiming to achieve with their clients? In seeking to answer this question, this chapter enquires into whether there is good reason to believe in a certain final end that is appropriate for therapy. In seeking out the final end of therapy, this chapter is not fundamentally interested in means that are particularly useful for attaining it. Making a client feel heard...

How is the brain engaged when people are thinking about their hopes, dreams, and obligations? Regulatory focus theory postulates two classes of personal goals and motivational systems for pursuing them. Ideal goals, such as hopes and aspirations, are pursued via the promotion system through "making good things happen." Ought goals, such as obligations or responsibilities, are pursued via the pr...