Introduction: Pharmacological neuroenhancement (PN) is a topic of increasing importance and prevalence among students. However, there lack differentiating PN substances, according to their psychoactive effects. In particular, data about by caffeinated drinks, even if coffee common broadly used Neuroenhancer because its cognitively enhancing effects regarding wakefulness, alertness concentration...

Disease prevention strategies fall into two broad categories. These are reactive and proactive strategies. There are various tools available for these and various management philosophies incorporate some or all of them. The most common tools for reactive management of diseases are antibiotics. In the US there are very few antibiotics that are specifically approved for use in aquaculture, though...

WE READ WITH GREAT INTEREST JENNIFER Couzin’s article “Pediatric study of ADHD drug draws high-level public review” (News of the Week, 20 Aug., p. 1088), which describes “heated debate among pediatricians and bioethicists” over the ethics of a study proposing to evaluate the effects of stimulant medication in typically developing children. As one pediatrician and bioethicist stated in the artic...

Psychostimulants like Adderall and Ritalin are widely used for cognitive enhancement by people without ADHD, although the empirical literature has shown little conclusive evidence for effectiveness in this population. This paper explores one potential explanation of this discrepancy: the possibility that the benefit from enhancement stimulants is at least in part motivational, rather than purel...