22 Rewards and punishments (reinforcement) powerfully shape behavior. 23 Accordingly, their neuronal representation is of significant interest, both for 24 understanding normal brain-behavior relationships and the pathophysiology of 25 disorders such as depression and addiction. A recent article by Vickery and 26 colleagues in Neuron provides evidence that the neural response to rewards and 27 ...

The vigor with which humans and animals engage in a task is often a determinant of the likelihood of the task's success. An influential theoretical model suggests that the speed and rate at which responses are made should depend on the availability of rewards and punishments. While vigor facilitates the gathering of rewards in a bountiful environment, there is an incentive to slow down when pun...

This article proposes and tests a formal cognitive model for the go/no-go discrimination task. In this task, the performer chooses whether to respond to stimuli and receives rewards for responding to certain stimuli and punishments for responding to others. Three cognitive models were evaluated on the basis of data from a longitudinal study involving 400 adolescents. The results show that a cue...

We study common agency problems in which principals (groups) make costly commitments to incentives that are conditioned on imperfect signals of the agent’s action. Our framework allows for incentives to be either rewards or punishments and an equilibrium always exists. For our canonical example with two principals we obtain a unique equilibrium, which typically involves randomization by both pr...

The purpose of this study was to determine directly or indirectly the effect rewards andpunishments and training on employee performance through organizational commitment as anintervening variable at Bondowoso Regency Environmental Transportation Agency. Thenumber samples in 114. analytical technique used StructuralEquation Model (SEM) using WarpPLS 5.0. results data analysis show that variable...

Evidence indicates that dopaminergic neurons in basal ganglia implement a form of temporal difference (TD) reinforcement learning. Yet, while phasic dopamine levels encode prediction errors of rewarding outcomes, the encoding of punishing outcomes is weaker and less precise. We posit that this asymmetry between reward and punishment reflects functional design. In order to test this hypothesis, ...

Unlike most species, humans cooperate extensively with group members who are not closely related to them, a pattern sustained in part by punishing non-cooperators and rewarding cooperators. Because internally cooperative groups prevail over less cooperative rival groups, it is thought that violent intergroup conflict played a key role in the evolution of human cooperation. Consequently, it is p...