A quantitative and robust bioassay to assess plant defense response is important for studies of disease resistance and also for the early identification of disease during pre- or non-symptomatic phases. An increase in extracellular pH is known to be an early defense response in plants. In this study, we demonstrate extracellular alkalinization as a defense response in potatoes. Using potato sus...

In this study, cell-suspension culture of strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa), cultivars Camarosa, and Sweet Charlie has been established. Embryogenic callus was induced by incubating the in vitro juvenile leaf explants on medium, containing 2-mg/l picloram at dark. Suspension culture was initiated from 4-week-old embryogenic calli in the liquid MS medium with 1-mg/l 2,4-D and 2-mg/l picloram. Sus...

This essay distills the differences between zero inflation proponents and critics to three main questions: Can the central bank make a credible commitment to maintaining a stable price level? Should monetary policy be used to reduce the tax on capital income? And would reducing uncertainty about inflation produce significant social benefits? Proponents of zero inflation answer all three questio...

Herbivorous insect species are constantly challenged with reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated from endogenous and exogenous sources. ROS produced within insects because of stress and prooxidant allelochemicals produced by host plants in response to herbivory require a complex mode of antioxidant defense during insect/plant interactions. Some insect herbivores have a midgut-based defense aga...

one of the important reasons for death among the worldwide’s population is trauma which is injury or damage to a biological organism caused by physical harm from an external source. after trauma, the immune system and the early inflammatory immune response activation lead to massive injury. trauma causes activation of nearly all components of the immune system; it also activates the neuroendocr...

Plants have evolved complicated regulatory systems to control immune responses. Both positive and negative signaling pathways interplay to coordinate development of a resistance response with the appropriate amplitude and duration. AtNUDT7, a Nudix domain-containing protein in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) that hydrolyzes nucleotide derivatives, was found to be a negative regulator of the ...

Immunomodulators are natural or synthetic materials that regulate the immune system and induce innate and adaptive defense mechanisms. These substances are classified into two types, immunostimulants and immunosuppressants. Immunostimulants can enhance body's resistance against various infections through increasing the basal levels of immune response. These agents could increase the oxidative a...

Chewing insects cause severe yield losses in crop production worldwide. Crop plants counteract chewing insects by transcriptionally promoting a repertoire of defense gene products that are either toxic to, or attractive to the natural enemies of, pest insects. However, the complexity of the transcriptional reprogramming in plant defense response against chewing insects is still not well underst...

Evolution has endowed all humans with a continuum of innate, hard-wired, automatically activated defense behaviors, termed the defense cascade. Arousal is the first step in activating the defense cascade; flight or fight is an active defense response for dealing with threat; freezing is a flight-or-fight response put on hold; tonic immobility and collapsed immobility are responses of last resor...

Length heterogeneity-PCR assays, combined with statistical analyses, highlighted that the endophytic bacterial community associated with healthy grapevines was characterized by a greater diversity than that present in diseased and recovered plants. The findings suggest that phytoplasmas can restructure the bacterial community by selecting endophytic strains that could elicit a plant defense res...