Extending climatological forcing data to current and real-time forcing is a necessary task for hydrological forecasting. While such data are often readily available nationally, it is harder to find fit-for-purpose global data sets that span long climatological periods through to near-real time. Hydrological simulations are generally sensitive to bias in the meteorological forcing data, especial...

Orography is known to affect local meteorological conditions by inducing orographic rainfall and a rain shadow i.e. reduced on the mountain’s leeside with respect windward side. Therefore it has strong effect population agriculture. Recent work highlights ambiguities in definition difficulties quantification of using observational data. A statistical approach presented that allows its investiga...

It is common practice to summarize the skill of weather forecasts from an accumulation of samples spanning many locations and dates. In calculating many of these scores, there is an implicit assumption that the climatological frequency of event occurrence is approximately invariant over all samples. If the event frequency actually varies among the samples, the metrics may report a skill that is...