today many countries have water shortage problems, so most of them compel to resort to desalination processes. this paper describes the effect of indirect contact freezing by external cooling for desalination of seawater and brackish water. although various types of processes are introduced for desalination and such processes as reverse osmosis (ro) and multi-effect distillation (med) are used ...

We examine the metastable liquid phase of a supercooled gold nanocluster by studying the free energy landscape using the largest solidlike embryo as an order parameter. Just below freezing, the free energy exhibits a local minimum at small embryo sizes and a maximum at a larger critical embryo size. At T=660 K the free energy becomes a monotonically decreasing function of the order parameter as...

The objective of this paper is to investigate water supercooling. Supercooling occurs when a liquid does not freeze although its temperature is below its freezing point. In general, supercooling is an unstable condition and occurs under special conditions. The parameters that influence supercooling stability and probability of occurrence include freezer temperature and water’s initial temperatu...

Prior exposure to drugs of abuse has been shown to occlude the structural plasticity associated with living in a complex environment. Amphetamine treatment may also occlude some cognitive advantages normally associated with living in a complex environment. To test this hypothesis we examined the influence of prior exposure to amphetamine on fear conditioning in rats housed in either a standard ...

Freezing to a tone following auditory fear conditioning is commonly considered as a measure of the strength of the tone-shock association. The decrease in freezing on repeated nonreinforced tone presentation following conditioning, in turn, is attributed to the formation of an inhibitory association between tone and shock that leads to a suppression of the expression of fear. This study challen...

It is known that for some values of the initial parameters that define the Richtmyer-Meshkov instability, the normal velocity at the contact surface vanishes asymptotically in time. This phenomenon, called freeze-out, is studied here with an exact analytic model. The instability freeze-out, already considered by previous authors [K.O. Mikaelian, Phys. Fluids 6, 356 (1994), Y. Yang, Q. Zhang, an...

We study the 1D contracting Stefan problem with two moving boundaries that describes the freezing of a supercooled liquid. The problem is borderline ill–posed with a density in excess of unity indicative of the dividing line. We show that if the initial density, ρ0(x) does not exceed one and is not too close to one in the vicinity of the boundaries, then there is a unique solution for all times...

A problem of the noise-induced generation and shifts phantom attractors in nonlinear dynamical systems is considered. On basis model describing interaction climate vegetation we study probabilistic mechanisms systematic global temperature both upward (“warming”) downward (“freezing”). These are associated with changes area Earth covered by vegetation. The mathematical these phenomena performed ...