In 1953, Watson and Crick not only described the double-helix structure of DNA, but also embraced the idea that genes contained a code that expresses information and thereby changed our view of life. This article traces how these ideas entered biological thinking and highlights the connections between different branches of science at the time, exploring the power of metaphor in science.

In 1952 Virginia Apgar, a physician at the Sloane Women?s Hospital in New York City, New York, created the Apgar score as a method of evaluating newborn infants? health to determine if they required medical intervention. The score included five separate categories, including heart rate, breathing rate, reaction to stimuli, muscle activity, and color. An infant received a score from zero to two ...

In 1952 Virginia Apgar, a physician at the Sloane Women?s Hospital in New York City, New York, created the Apgar score as a method of evaluating newborn infants? health to determine if they required medical intervention. The score included five separate categories, including heart rate, breathing rate, reaction to stimuli, muscle activity, and color. An infant received a score from zero to two ...

In 1952 Virginia Apgar, a physician at the Sloane Women?s Hospital in New York City, New York, created the Apgar score as a method of evaluating newborn infants? health to determine if they required medical intervention. The score included five separate categories, including heart rate, breathing rate, reaction to stimuli, muscle activity, and color. An infant received a score from zero to two ...

In the first half of the 20th century, indices and methods of conducting surveys of the level of dental diseases were developed. Modern epidemiological studies began in the fifties and many reliable studies have been conducted after 1960. In the following decades, a substantial decline of caries prevalence was documented in the majority of the highly industrialized countries, with reductions of...