MHC class II molecules expressed by professional antigen presenting cells (pAPCs) such as macrophages, B cells, and dendritic cells (DCs) play a fundamental role in presenting peptides to CD4(+) T cells. However, to elicit CD4(+)-T cells immunity, pAPCs need an additional signal, which can be delivered by toll-like receptors (TLRs) molecules. TLRs recognize microbial patterns and are critical i...

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a critical role in the detection of invading pathogens within the body and the subsequent immune response. Individual TLRs recognize distinct microbial components. The TLRs are a type 1 transmembrane receptor that possess an extracellular leucine-rich repeat domain and cytoplasmic domain homologous with that of the interleukin 1 receptor (IL-1R) family. Upon stim...

The innate immune system relies on a vast array of non-clonally expressed pattern recognition receptors for the detection of pathogens. Pattern recognition receptors bind conserved molecular structures shared by large groups of pathogens, termed pathogen-associated molecular patterns. The Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a recently discovered family of pattern recognition receptors which show hom...

The Toll-like receptors (TLRs) of the innate immune system detect host invasion by pathogens and initiate immune responses. All of the TLRs use the adaptor MyD88 to transduce a signal; however, two newly identified signaling molecules, TIRAP and TRIF, interact with a subset of the TLRs, suggesting a signaling specificity that may be relevant to the type of infection. Activation of the TRIF path...

Based on an evolutionary conserved repertoire Toll-like-receptors (TLRs) donate specificity to innate immune cells. Therefore, TLRs are considered as paradigmatic for "self" versus "non-self" discrimination. This view, however, needs to be modified since TLR's also appear to recognise "endogeneous", that is host-derived ligands, examples being host-derived DNA and -RNA. Here I discuss physiolog...

Innate immune cells - and many other cells - express evolutionarily conserved, germline-encoded receptors that recognize seemingly pathogen-derived ligands (also termed pathogen-associated molecular patterns), thereby allowing the host to perceive infection. Although they were the first to be discovered, Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are not the only pattern recognition receptors. TLRs are unlikel...

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are known as pattern-recognition receptors related to the Toll protein of Drosophila. After recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns of microbial origin, the TLRs alert the immune system, and initiate innate and adaptive immune responses. The TLR system, though, is not confined solely to the leukocyte-mediated immune defense against exogenous pathogens. B...

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a conserved family of pattern recognition receptors that play a fundamental role in the innate immune system by triggering proinflammatory signaling pathways in response to microbial pathogens through exogenous pathogen-associated molecular patterns or tissue injury through endogenous danger-associated molecular patterns. In the kidney, TLRs are widely expressed i...

Female and male reproductive tracts are of interest sites to study of immune system because they encounter specific infections such as those are sexually transmitted. Furthermore, female reproductive tract is in close contact with allogenic sperms and transmitted microorganisms during intercourse and semi allogenic fetus during pregnancy. In mammals, there are two types of immune responses, the...