nated in the fall to insure protection during the fall and winter. Some cattle owners in badly infected areas follow the practice of vaccinating every 6 months all animals between the ages of 2 and I o months. A product known as antiblackleg serum is sometimes used for immunizing valuable calves exposed in outbreaks. This product immediately increases the animal's resistance to blackleg, but th...

DNA vaccination has been of great interest since its discovery in the 1990s due to its ability to elicit both humoral and cellular immune responses. DNA vaccines consist of a DNA plasmid containing a transgene that encodes the sequence of a target protein from a pathogen under the control of a eukaryotic promoter. This revolutionary technology has proven to be effective in animal models and fou...

Recombinant subunit vaccines based on hemagglutinin proteins produced in bacteria (bacterial HAs) are promising candidates for enhancing the supply of vaccines against influenza, especially for a pandemic. Over 20 years after the failure to obtain the antigen with native HA characteristics in the early 1980's, there are increasing data on successful production of HA proteins in bacteria. The va...

OBJECTIVES To describe the role and current status of vaccine research against sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). METHODS The available literature was reviewed with particular emphasis on bacterial STDs. RESULTS Strategic approaches to possible implementation of STD vaccine programmes were analysed. The status of vaccines against bacterial STDs (syphilis, chancroid, gonorrhoea, and chlam...

Aquaculture is emerging as the fastest growing food-producing industry in the world because of the increasing demand for food fish consumption. However, the intensive culture of food fish has led to outbreaks of various bacterial diseases, resulting in annual economic losses to the aquaculture industry estimated at billions of dollars worldwide. Feeding infected fish with antibiotic-medicated f...

Deaths during the 1918-19 influenza pandemic have been attributed to a hypervirulent influenza strain. Hence, preparations for the next pandemic focus almost exclusively on vaccine prevention and antiviral treatment for infections with a novel influenza strain. However, we hypothesize that infections with the pandemic strain generally caused self-limited (rarely fatal) illnesses that enabled co...

meningococcal disease remains a significant global public health and is unique among causes of bacterial meningitis and sepsis where it not only causes sporadic disease but also outbreaks. meningococcal disease has a rapid onset with high mortality. the understanding of immunopathogenesis is crucial for development of novel therapeutic strategies and vaccines designed against meningococcal dise...