Escherichia coli enterotoxin (LT) and the homologous cholera toxin (CT) are A-B toxins that cause travelers' diarrhea and cholera, respectively. So far, experimental live and killed vaccines against these diseases have been developed using only the nontoxic B portion of these toxins. The enzymatically active A subunit has not been used because it is responsible for the toxicity and it is report...

Vaccination has been an important component of preventative health care programs of North American zoologic institutions in their protection of valuable species against West Nile virus (WNV) infection since its detection in 1999. Although approved only for horses, commercial WNV vaccine has been used for the purpose of protection of nondomestic species, including avian, equid, and rhinoceros sp...

2 Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) is an arthropod-borne viral pathogen that causes significant 3 morbidity and mortality among ruminants throughout Africa and the Middle East. Vaccination 4 is an important means to reduce the risk of RVFV infection in the ruminant population but has 5 proved to be challenging due to the sporadic and explosive nature of RVF outbreaks; currently, 6 two types of va...

All vaccines are developed to elicit an effective immune response in vaccinated animals such as innate, humoral and cell mediated response to protect animal health. Quality and intensity of the immune responses are differing by characteristics of the vaccine formulation and nature of the infectious agent. Modified live virus vaccines showed advantages over killed vaccines in terms of rapid immu...

Tully, Joseph G. (Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Washington, D.C.) and Julius A. Currie. Vi-negative strains of Salmonella typhosa: attempts to induce W-V reversion and the use of non-Vi strains in evaluating typhoid vaccines. J. Bacteriol. 84:747-753. 1962.-Repeated attempts have been made to detect reversion of several W-form Salmonella typhosa strains to Vi antigen-containing cultur...

Vaccines have been implemented for more than two centuries and have saved millions of lives, which is one of the most outstanding inventions in medicine. The concept of vaccine was conceived two centuries ago by the English physician Edward Jenner, “the father of immunology”. He had initiated the first protective vaccine against smallpox using live cowpox virus in 1798. Many effective vaccines ...

The development of synthetic peptide-based vaccines has many advantages in comparison with vaccines based on live attenuated organisms, inactivated or killed organism, or toxins. Peptide-based vaccines cannot revert to a virulent form, allow a better conservation, and are produced more easily and safely. However, they generate a weaker immune response than other vaccines, and the inclusion of a...

mucosal surfaces of the body provide a universal entry portal for all known and emerging infectious pathogenic microbes. therefore, it seems that special vaccination strategies are needed for vaccines that can hinder the entry capability of pathogenic microbes through the mucosal surfaces. lactic acid bacteria are widely used in the food industry and are presently applied as delivery vehicles i...