[no abstract available]

this essay with a historical look reviews the use of chemical weapons in the world wars i and ii and other limited wars before this imposed war against iran. then, it explains the international regulations on prohibition and non-proliferation of chemical weapons. regarding iran-iraq war, the use of these weapons against iranian military forces and civilians as well as iraqi people is discussed....

background: exposure to chemical warfare gases significantly changes the quality of life (qol) of victims and has significant chronic adverse effects. objective: this study sought to assess the health-related qol (hrqol) of chemical victims by means of a tool specifically designed for this purpose. the correlation of their qol with several demographic factors was evaluated as well. patients and...

Leaf-cutting ants are well known for their highly complex social organization, which provides them with a strong defense against parasites invading their colonies. Besides this attribute, these insects have morphological, physiological and structural characteristics further reinforcing the defense of their colonies. With the discovery of symbiotic bacteria present on the integument of leaf-cutt...

Objectives To discover the content of enduring beliefs held by first world war veterans about their experience of having been gassed. Design Collection and thematic analysis of written and reported statements from a sample of veterans about gassing. Subjects 103 veterans with a war pension. Results Twelve themes were identified, which were related to individual statements. The systemic nature o...

T his is the second article in a series of papers addressing issues related to biological warfare and bioterrorism. As outlined in the historical review of biological warfare (1), smallpox is one of the most devastating diseases that could potentially be used as a biological weapon. In fact, smallpox was for many centuries devastating to mankind. However, the remarkable efforts of the World Hea...

Background The repeated use of prohibited chemical weapons in the Syrian conflict poses serious health, humanitarian, and security threats to civilians, healthcare personnel, and first responders. Moreover, the use of chemical weapons constitutes a clear and egregious violation of international law-likely amounting to a war crime-for which continued impunity is setting a dangerous precedent in ...