Accumulation of gene changes and chromosomal instability in response to cellular DNA damage lead to cancer. DNA damage induces cell cycle checkpoints pathways. Checkpoints regulate DNA replication and cell cycle progression, chromatin restructuring, and apoptosis. Checkpoint kinase 2 (chk2) is activated in response to DNA lesions. ATM phosphorylate chk2. The activated Chk2 kinase can phosphoryl...

Cells in the renal inner medulla are normally exposed to extraordinarily high levels of NaCl and urea. The osmotic stress causes numerous perturbations because of the hypertonic effect of high NaCl and the direct denaturation of cellular macromolecules by high urea. High NaCl and urea elevate reactive oxygen species, cause cytoskeletal rearrangement, inhibit DNA replication and transcription, i...